This article selects 7 original studies published from 2007 to 2026, covering work involving teams from the United States, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, China, India, and other regions, and presents a narrative review. The content is independently summarized by TONGLI based on publicly available literature, distinguishing between in vitro cultures and animal implantations, and does not evaluate commercial products.
01What problems must vascular scaffolds and myocardial patches address, respectively?
Vascular materials must maintain luminal patency in environments with blood flow and pressure, while managing the blood-contact interface and vessel-wall remodeling. Myocardial scaffolds, by contrast, may be used for in vitro culture, cell delivery, or heart-surface repair. Different applications determine sample morphology and validation endpoints; favorable cell growth on planar fibers cannot be directly equated with long-term vascular patency or cardiac function recovery.1,2,5,6,7
| Application | Typical Structures | Key evaluation focuses in the literature |
|---|---|---|
| Small-Diameter Vascular Scaffolds | Multilayer Walls, Wound Tubes, or Rotational-Collection Tubes | Dimensions, Mechanics, Blood Contact, and Post-Implantation Patency 1,2,3,4 |
| Myocardial Cell Culture and Drug Research | Aligned Fibers and Core-Shell Fiber Culture Patches | Cell Alignment, Calcium Activity, Electrical Signals, and Drug Response 5 |
| Myocardial Repair Patches | Cell Scaffolds or Bilateral Composite Patches | Fixation, Tissue Contact, Electrical Coupling, and Animal Cardiac-Function-Related Endpoints 6,7 |
Therefore, “fabricating a cardiovascular fibrous membrane” still requires further definition. The inner and outer sides of a lumen may adopt different designs, and the tissue-contact and external surfaces of a cardiac patch may also serve distinct functions. Describing these interfaces separately helps determine whether the electrospun layer constitutes the main structure, a cell carrier, or a functional layer within a composite material.
02From Planar Membranes to Tubular Scaffolds: Research on Multilayering and Post-Forming
In a 2015 study by Wu et al., poly(lactic acid-caprolactone) copolymer, collagen, and chitosan were organized into multilayer tubular structures with symmetrical gradients using bidirectional-gradient electrospinning. With the same raw-material proportions, the layering method altered the material’s mechanical properties and cellular behavior; the paper also compared degradation-related changes. The evidence pertains to materials and in vitro evaluations, with the research focusing on where components are placed rather than merely how much is added.3
In a 2024 study by Meng et al., PLLA electrospun planar membranes were wound around molds, followed by acetone post-treatment to obtain tubular scaffolds with adjustable dimensions and shapes. The study demonstrated the ability to form various diameters, lengths, and complex shapes, and evaluated mechanics, structural retention, and the response of A7r5 cells. This provides a route for reprocessing planar membranes but does not establish long-term implantation patency based on this study alone.4
Branching or variable-diameter samples also require consideration of local wall thickness and curvature changes. During sample preparation, simple straight tubes can first be retained as controls, separating shape design from formulation changes to gradually determine whether differences arise from collection, post-forming, or the material itself.
03Small-Diameter Vascular Research: From Blood Contact to Long-Term Remodeling
In a 2007 study by Hashi et al., aligned PLLA nanofibers were combined with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells to construct tubular grafts evaluated in a rat arterial model. Compared with cell-free scaffolds, the cell-seeded system reduced early platelet adhesion and thrombus formation, with subsequent vessel-wall tissue remodeling observed. The results indicate that the tissue-supporting role of the fibrous framework and the antithrombotic performance of the blood-contact surface are two interrelated issues.1
In 2012, de Valence et al. studied electrospun PCL vascular grafts in a rat abdominal aorta replacement model, with observation extending to 18 months. While the materials maintained patency and structural integrity, cell regression and calcification-related changes emerged at later stages. This work separates short-term patency from long-term tissue quality, reminding researchers not to judge the entire degradation and remodeling process based solely on early implantation results.2
The two studies highlight development priorities for tubular scaffolds from different angles: the former focuses on blood-contact responses after cell involvement, while the latter addresses time-dependent changes in vessel-wall status. For subsequent samples, patency, wall thickness, intimal response, tissue ingrowth, and material changes can be interpreted within a continuous observation framework, rather than treating any single indicator as definitive success.
Planar-membrane cell experiments remain valuable for comparing surfaces and formulations. Once testing progresses to complete tubular structures, issues related to flow and structure must be added. Static culture results, short-term blood-contact results, and animal vascular-replacement results should be labeled separately so that readers understand what each step actually addresses.
04Myocardial Culture Scaffolds: How Aligned Core-Shell Fibers Support Functional Research
In a 2020 study by Kumar et al., aligned fibers with PCL as the core and gelatin as the shell were prepared as patches for culturing human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. The authors evaluated cell alignment, sarcomere-related markers, calcium activity, and multi-electrode-array signals, and compared responses to drugs. This approach combines mechanical support, cell-contact interfaces, and directionality to serve in vitro myocardial models.5
For teams conducting drug screening or disease modeling, the value of such patches can first be demonstrated in culture and measurement processes without limiting their use to implantation. The paper title’s reference to “clinical trials in a petri dish” represents a model-based vision and does not indicate that human trials were conducted; observing synchronous contractions or drug responses also cannot be directly phrased as restoring damaged cardiac function.5
05Myocardial Repair Patches: From Aligned Guidance to Bilateral Interface Design
In a 2014 study by Lin et al., aligned and random electrospun patches were compared, with combinations of cardiomyocyte and endothelial cell seeding also tested, in a rat myocardial infarction model. The report found that aligned patches containing cells improved certain function-related outcomes, whereas random patches containing cells exhibited problems such as poor electrical coupling. This suggests that combinations of structure and cells require comprehensive validation and that adding cells cannot be assumed to yield better results.6
Studies published in Lv and subsequent years by 2026 combined a bioadhesive inner layer containing mitochondria with a lubricative electrospun outer layer to create a Janus cardiac patch, simultaneously evaluating repair and anti-adhesion in a rat myocardial infarction model. Here, the electrospun outer layer serves as the external barrier, while delivery and adhesion are primarily accomplished by the inner layer, demonstrating that electrospinning can fulfill only a portion of the complete patch’s functions.7
These two studies highlight two design considerations: cell scaffolds must account for alignment and electrical activity coordination with the host, and bilayer patches must address fixation on the myocardial side and contact with external tissues. Neither can be adequately summarized by dry-state strength or cell survival rate alone; the relationships among fixation, motion, and tissue response also require investigation.
06How to interpret cardiovascular research evidence across different stages
The studies selected for this review include in vitro material and cell work, as well as rat vascular and myocardial models. No conclusions regarding human efficacy for specific electrospun vascular or myocardial patches have been drawn from these studies. This scope describes only the literature selected for this review and does not imply that no other clinical studies exist globally. Culturing human-derived cells remains an in vitro-stage activity.1,2,3,4,5,6,7
When reviewing the results, systematically verify the materials, sample morphology, cell source, experimental model, observation period, and endpoints. For vascular applications, patency must be interpreted alongside vessel wall reconstruction; for myocardial applications, the electrical signals of the culture system must be distinguished from integration with in vivo tissue and overall function. Data obtained using different animals, vessel diameters, or injury models are also unsuitable for direct comparison on a single ranking of superiority.
Similarly, scalability, customizable shapes, and continuous fabrication pertain to manufacturing research information; these characteristics alone do not indicate that a graft has completed full validation. Presenting manufacturing capabilities alongside biological evidence helps end-user R&D teams determine the practical relevance of the literature to their projects.
07From research structures to reproducible vascular and myocardial samples
Tubular samples first require defining inner diameter, wall thickness, and layering
After clarifying the inner diameter, length, wall thickness, presence of layers, and functions of the inner and outer surfaces, discuss rotary collection, nozzle movement, or post-formation of membrane sheets. Sample comparisons may include circumferential and axial mechanics, pressure resistance, suture retention, bending, and leakage, depending on the intended use. Test conditions must correspond to the intended application and should not rely solely on tensile values obtained from flat membranes.
Myocardial patches first require defining alignment and contact methods
For cultured patches, consider fiber orientation, culture area, and detection interfaces; for composite patches, additionally address interlayer bonding, wet-state deformation, and fixation methods. Core-shell or multi-channel fluid delivery can help arrange material positions, but the final distribution of components within the fibers and batch consistency must still be confirmed.5,7
Correlate post-processing and process records with the final sample
When increasing scale or extending fabrication time, correlate solution batches, fluid supply, electric field, environment, collection speed, and post-processing with thickness and morphology. Core mandrel demolding, winding-based shaping, crosslinking, and cleaning also affect the final structure and should be included in process comparisons. Residues, sterilization effects, blood compatibility, and biocompatibility must be validated according to the specific system.
This information can be translated into more specific equipment communication: Is stable straight-tube collection required, or oriented membrane sheets? Is layered deposition or a coaxial structure needed? Are the samples primarily intended for material screening, cell modeling, or subsequent implantation studies? Clarifying the samples first ensures that process configurations align with research objectives.
08Common issues in electrospun cardiovascular scaffold development
Does rolling a fibrous membrane into a tube automatically produce an artificial blood vessel?
Winding provides one method of shaping. Full vascular applications also involve blood contact, pressure resistance, suturing, long-term patency, and vessel wall changes. Shape controllability and post-implantation performance must be validated separately.1,2,4
Does synchronized beating of cardiomyocytes indicate effective myocardial repair?
Synchronized activity is one in vitro functional observation. Whether the tissue coordinates with the host after implantation, improves overall function, or generates abnormal electrical activity requires corresponding animal or clinical studies and cannot be directly inferred from culture results.5,6
Must all functions be performed by the electrospun layer?
No. The fibrous layer can provide support, cell alignment, or an external barrier, and can then be combined with other functional layers. The function of each layer should first be clarified before comparing the overall structural stability and whether the layers interfere with one another.3,7
References
The following are the original studies used in this review. [3–5] was cross-read with relevant chapters of the full text, [1] with the abstract and original figure legends, and [2,6,7] compiled from the original abstract and bibliographic information. The interpretation of these studies does not imply that the paper authors or institutions have equipment procurement, collaboration, or customer relationships with TONGLI.
Bibliographic records retain the original publication language for accurate lookup.
Hashi CK, Zhu Y, Yang GY, et al. Antithrombogenic property of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in nanofibrous vascular grafts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 2007;104(29):11915–11920.
DOI：10.1073/pnas.0704581104 ↗Scope of review: original abstract, figure legends, and bibliographic information for PubMed
de Valence S, Tille JC, Mugnai D, et al. Long term performance of polycaprolactone vascular grafts in a rat abdominal aorta replacement model. Biomaterials. 2012;33(1):38–47.
DOI：10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.09.024 ↗Scope of review: Original abstracts and bibliographic information of PubMed
Wu T, Huang C, Li D, et al. A multi-layered vascular scaffold with symmetrical structure by bi-directional gradient electrospinning. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2015;133:179–188.
DOI：10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.05.048 ↗Scope of review: local full-text homepage and conclusion, bibliographic verification of PubMed
Meng C, Song J, Malekmohammadi S, et al. Hierarchical porous poly (L-lactic acid) fibrous vascular graft with controllable architectures and stable structure. Materials & Design. 2024;240:112829.
DOI：10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112829 ↗Scope of review: local full-text abstract and fabrication methods, author and institution record verification
Kumar N, Sridharan D, Palaniappan A, et al. Scalable Biomimetic Coaxial Aligned Nanofiber Cardiac Patch: A Potential Model for “Clinical Trials in a Dish”. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 2020;8:567842.
DOI：10.3389/fbioe.2020.567842 ↗Scope of review: publisher’s original full-text abstract, fabrication methods, functional testing, and related discussion chapters
Lin YD, Ko MC, Wu ST, et al. A nanopatterned cell-seeded cardiac patch prevents electro-uncoupling and improves the therapeutic efficacy of cardiac repair. Biomaterials Science. 2014;2:567–580.
DOI：10.1039/C3BM60289C ↗Scope of review: original abstract and bibliographic information for RSC from the publisher
Lv Y, Zhou X, Wang M, et al. Mitochondria-Loaded Janus Cardiac Patch for Myocardial Infarction Repair and Prevention of Tissue Adhesions. ACS Nano. 2026;20(1):1462–1480.
DOI：10.1021/acsnano.5c18334 ↗Scope of review: original abstract and bibliographic information for PubMed
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