This article selects 7 studies published from 2020 to 2025, involving research teams from China, South Korea, Romania, and international collaborations, and focuses on in vitro and animal evidence. The selected studies do not provide results from human clinical trials; this scope does not imply that no relevant human studies exist globally.
01What problems do hemostasis and tissue adhesion each aim to solve?
Hemostatic fiber membranes can participate in research by promoting local coagulation, limiting blood loss, or forming a sealing layer; tissue adhesion further requires examining the connection between the material and wet tissue. The two can be combined but cannot substitute for each other: faster coagulation in vitro does not necessarily mean no bleeding on the tissue surface, and higher adhesive strength does not necessarily mean the material can be used safely in all locations.1,2,4,7
| Research direction | Roles assumed by fiber materials | Corresponding Evaluations |
|---|---|---|
| Removable hemostatic covering materials | Create a local coagulation environment and limit permeation | Blood loss, coagulation, and rebleeding after removal 1,2 |
| Retainable adhesive patches | Support adhesive components and seal the tissue interface | Wet-state adhesion, tissue response, and material fate 4,7 |
| In situ film formation | Depositing fibers into irregular or confined sites | Deposition location, coverage integrity, and local response 5,6 |
Determining whether the final material needs to be removed is an important design boundary. In the former case, removal must avoid taking away blood clots; in the latter, further investigation is required into degradation, residues, and tissue response. The same “strong adhesion” may correspond to different requirements in these two scenarios.2,4,7
02From hydrophilic absorption to tunable blood-contact interfaces
Polymers such as chitosan, PVA, and PEO can form composite fibers with mineral particles or modified components; PLA fibers can serve as a supporting structure for adhesive patches. Functionality may arise from the combined effects of polymer charge, surface wetting, fillers, and wet-state structure, and hemostatic performance cannot be explained solely by fiber diameter or material name.1,2,3,4
The studies present different design orientations: hydrophilic fibers absorb some liquid and come into contact with blood components; moderately hydrophobic fibers limit blood penetration into the material; fibers that interconnect upon encountering liquid transform into a denser, sealed network. These approaches are not contradictory but address different liquid-management and application questions.1,2,7
03Chitosan composite fibers: from coagulation tests to animal hemostasis
Chitosan, PEO, and kaolin
In Liu et al. 2022, kaolin was introduced into chitosan/PEO electrospun membranes to compare material mechanics, biocompatibility, and in vitro coagulation performance, with observations conducted in rat liver injury and dorsal wound models. Certain formulations in this study demonstrated hemostatic and repair-related effects, indicating that mineral particles can participate in local functional design through the fiber network.1
Hydrophobic modification and interfaces that facilitate removal
In Liu et al. 2024, chitosan/PEO membranes containing alkylated chitosan N- were further investigated. Through whole-blood coagulation, coagulation process analysis, and rat liver injury evaluation, the authors proposed limiting blood penetration into the dressing while forming a clot at the wound site, and observed minimal disruption to local coagulation during material removal. This represents an animal-stage exploration balancing hemostasis and removability.2
Variations in natural raw materials also require revalidation
Korean researchers Lee et al. 2024 combined insect-derived chitosan with PVA and kaolin to investigate raw-material properties, film-forming ability, cytocompatibility, and ex vivo blood coagulation. The work also discussed multi-position electrospinning and continuous substrate collection, demonstrating an approach integrating formulation and fabrication equipment. Its hemostatic evidence derives from ex vivo coagulation tests and should not be presented as having completed in vivo trauma or human efficacy validation.3
04How do the fiber scaffold and medical tissue-adhesion components share responsibilities?
Romanian researchers Tosa et al. 2024 first electrospun a nonwoven PLA fiber membrane and then formed a patch with a cyanoacrylate tissue-adhesion component. In addition to analyzing the fibers and storage state, the paper conducted adhesion-related evaluations on rat liver tissue and performed a hepatectomy bleeding model test.4
This study demonstrates that electrospinning can undertake the task of “transforming adhesive functionality into a sheet-like structure that is easy to cover.” Attention should be given not only to whether adhesion can be achieved but also to the distribution of the adhesive component within the fibers, whether premature changes occur during storage, and whether the patch can conform to the tissue. The fibers in the study were micron-scale; thus, “the finer, the better” is not a design prerequisite for all adhesive patches.4
Such materials still require integrated investigation of the fiber scaffold, adhesive component, and packaging. The animal observations and ex vivo adhesion tests in the paper can help define subsequent questions but cannot directly substitute for human-use evaluation, nor do they indicate that this approach is applicable to any tissue or any cyanoacrylate formulation.4
05In situ electrospinning: how to study coverage of irregular surfaces
Laparoscopic directional deposition
In Zhang et al. 2020, electrospinning was combined with a laparoscopic device to adjust the deposition range through electric-field and nozzle-position modifications, and hemostasis on the liver surface was investigated in a minimally invasive porcine surgery model. The study linked membrane location, thickness, and local tissue response, demonstrating the experimental feasibility of in situ coverage within confined spaces.5
Combining hemostasis with local antibacterial function
Liu et al. 2020 reported portable in situ electrospun CuS composite fibers, combined with near-infrared conditions for antibacterial investigation, and observed hemostasis and infection-wound repair in relevant rat models. One focus was how the in situ-formed membrane adapts to rough surfaces; another was how functional components and external stimulation cooperate.6
The aforementioned in situ studies are animal experiments conducted with specialized equipment and material systems. They do not imply that conventional scientific electrospinning equipment can be directly used in humans. For equipment developers, deposition controllability, tissue contact, and electrical and chemical compatibility must be designed together; these aspects belong to whole-system and material validation after the intended use has been defined.5,6
06Blood-triggered self-sealing fibers: enabling simultaneous function of the membrane interior and edges
In Fang et al. 2025, coaxial electrospinning was used to construct core-shell fibers with opposite charges. Upon encountering liquid, the fibers interconnected, transforming the originally porous material into a denser structure and adhering to the tissue interface. Hemostasis was observed in rat and porcine models of liver and femoral artery injury, and relevant materials and biological responses were evaluated.7
The insight from this work is to address two leakage pathways simultaneously: blood passing through the membrane itself and blood flowing from the interface between the material and tissue. It integrates inter-fiber bonding and tissue adhesion into a single approach, but the results remain from animal studies and the performance is environment-dependent; they cannot be generalized from a single model to all bleeding sites.7
07From literature structure to reproducible hemostatic-membrane samples
First define coverage, adhesion, and removal methods
Before discussing equipment, specify whether the target sample is a preformed membrane, composite patch, or in situ membrane study, and whether a support substrate, core-shell structure, or multicomponent fibers are required. Membrane area, mass per unit area, thickness, and wet-state integrity should be defined as measurable targets before discussing fluid supply, collection, and environmental control.
Uniformity of composite components is more important than single-step membrane formation
When kaolin, CuS, or other particles are included, check dispersion state, fluid supply stability, and composition across different regions of the membrane; multichannel coaxial or layered structures also require confirmation that each component reaches its intended position. For adhesive patches, subsequent loading and storage processes are also part of fabrication and cannot be limited to recording only the electrospinning stage.1,3,4,6,7
Incorporate actual-use conditions into evaluation
Post-liquid-contact dimensional changes, wet-state strength, adhesion or peeling, residues, and material integrity can be included in sample comparisons. Blood compatibility, biocompatibility, residual solvents, sterilization, and storage effects must be verified item by item according to the specific application; a positive result from a single coagulation test indicates only the effect observed in that test.
When scaling up fabrication, it is recommended to correlate raw-material batches, solution state, environment, fluid supply, collection speed, and post-treatment with sampling results. In addition to average thickness, differences between edges and centers, as well as between initial and final sections, should be observed to confirm that the functional layer remains consistent across the entire effective area.
The sample preservation method should also be determined early. For fibers that readily absorb moisture or change upon contact with water, their state before and after packaging may affect actual comparisons; for membranes loaded with adhesive components, both storage duration and adhesive performance at sampling must be recorded.4,7
08Common Issues in Hemostasis and Medical Tissue Adhesion R&D
Must electrospun hemostatic membranes include an adhesive?
Not necessarily. The literature includes both chitosan composite fibers and structures with loaded adhesives or self-sealing upon liquid contact. First determine whether the goal is to promote coagulation, limit permeation, or fix tissue, then select the corresponding approach.1,2,4,7
Is accelerated in vitro coagulation sufficient to demonstrate actual hemostatic capability?
It is not sufficient. The application site and blood flow environment must also be considered, along with coverage, blood loss, and conditions after removal or retention. Ex vivo experiments and animal models are suitable for gradually verifying different issues and should not be combined into conclusions about human efficacy.1,2,3,4,5,7
Which type of sample should material development begin with?
Development can start with small-area membranes or composite layers that have clear functions and interpretable structures, establish comparisons between dry and wet states, and then discuss core-shell designs, multi-component systems, and continuous collection. The research complexity should be determined by the practical problem.
References
The following are the original studies selected for this article. The literature interpretation does not imply that the paper authors or research institutions have equipment procurement or cooperative relationships with TONGLI; the reported results apply only to the materials, models, and experimental conditions in the original texts.
Bibliographic records retain the original publication language for accurate lookup.
Liu T, et al. Electrospun kaolin-loaded chitosan/PEO nanofibers for rapid hemostasis and accelerated wound healing. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2022;217:998–1011.
DOI：10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.07.186 ↗Scope of review: PubMed original abstract and bibliography
Liu T, et al. Electrospun nanofiber membranes for rapid liver hemostasis via N-alkylated chitosan doped chitosan/PEO. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024;258:128948.
DOI：10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128948 ↗Scope of review: publisher’s original abstract, methods abstract, and conclusion
Lee H, et al. Extraction of γ-chitosan from insects and fabrication of PVA/γ-chitosan/kaolin nanofiber wound dressings with hemostatic properties. Discover Nano. 2024;19:77.
DOI：10.1186/s11671-024-04016-6 ↗Scope of review: publisher’s full-text methods and results relevant to the topic
Tosa VP, et al. Electrospun Polymeric Fiber Systems Inoculated with Cyanoacrylate Tissue Adhesive: A Novel Hemostatic Alternative during Open Surgery. Materials. 2024;17:4318.
DOI：10.3390/ma17174318 ↗Scope of review: PMC and publisher-published full-text methods, results, and abstracts relevant to the topic
Zhang J, et al. Laparoscopic electrospinning for in situ hemostasis in minimally invasive operation. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2020;395:125089.
DOI：10.1016/j.cej.2020.125089 ↗Scope of review: review of the full text of the original local paper, including relevant methods and results, and verification of the published bibliography
Liu XF, et al. Bifunctional CuS composite nanofibers via in situ electrospinning for outdoor rapid hemostasis and simultaneous ablating superbug. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2020;401:126096.
DOI：10.1016/j.cej.2020.126096 ↗Scope of review: review of the full text of the original local paper, including relevant methods and results, and verification of the published bibliography
Fang Y, et al. Blood-triggered self-sealing and tissue adhesive hemostatic nanofabric. Nature Communications. 2025;16:4910.
DOI：10.1038/s41467-025-60244-z ↗Scope of review: PMC and publisher-published full-text methods, results, and abstracts relevant to the topic
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